Cultural interactions among the Hilmand Civilization and the Indus Valley during the third millennium BCE

Abstract
Archaeological surveys and excavations conducted during the last century in two cultural zones (i.e. Helmand Valley and Indus plain) have brought to light a homogenous material cultural indicating the presence of an interaction sphere between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian Subcontinent in the third millennium BCE. The present article tries, from one hand, to investigate cultural interactions in these two regions and from another hand, through comparisons, shed lights on some dark aspects of the cultural and economic ties between ancient Sistan and Indus Valley. In this regard, two main archaeological finds (pottery and seal) coming from Sistani and Indus sites allow us further remarks on this topic. The results indicate that, due to its strategic geographical position alongside the exchange and commercial routes, the Sistan Plain (as a bridge) played a fundamental role in connecting the Indo-Iranian Borderlands, central Asia, the northern/southern coasts of the Persian Gulf, the Makran coasts as well as the Indian Subcontinent. In summary, these close cultural ties, dated back to the Bronze Age, attest old and uninterrupted mutual interconnections between two regions, from old period to the present time.
 
1. Introduction
Long-distance trade and cultural interactions are counted among those characteristics specifying the complexity of the ancient societies. From the fifth millennium BCE onward, with an increase of the social and economic complexities, several archaeological materials could be recognized as the evidence of exchange networks in the ancient world. In the third millennium BCE, the southeastern part of Iranian Plateau and particularly the Sistan Plain, via active exchange networks, were commercially engaged in economic contacts with neighboring or even far regions including the Indus Valley, Central Asia, southwestern Iran and Mesopotamia. This article aims to investigate cultural interactions between the Helmand Civilization (Shahr-i Sokhta and Mundigak) and the Indus Valley (Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa) by using archaeological evidence such as pottery and seals.
2. Discussion

Stein is the pioneer of cultural interactions studies in a vast region coined by him as the “Indo-Iranian Borderlands” (Stein 1937). After the beginning of excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta and Tepe Yahya (two main proto-historic sites in Sistan and Kerman), the similarities between material cultures of those two sites motivated the excavators to publish a co-signed article introducing some analogies and integrations between both the sites (Lamberg-Karlovsky and Tosi 1973). In the first decade of the present century, Elisa Cortesi and her colleagues followed this effort by another article focused on the cultural relations between Sistan, Makran and Indus (Cortesi et al. 2008). At the moment, it seems useful to investigate some other aspects of cultural interactions between two regions and to introduce further new data on the subject.

In this way, to analyze cultural interactions of sistan and Indus, firstly a comparison of pottery could be considered as a key factor. In this regards, typological studies on the pottery show a great degree of analogy in motifs and forms at Shahr-i Sokhta and Mundigak. At the same time, Nal polychrome ware which characterizes the northern and central Baluchistan is present among the pottery corpus of Shahr-i Sokhta and Mundigak. Few Harappan potsherds found at Sistan are the proofs of a direct contact between Shahr-i sokhta and Harappan sites.
So far, a fragment of cylinder seal with Harappan signs found at Sistan is the most important Indus finding (Knox 1994). Although, it’s finding circumstance in an archaeological context is not clear, however, it is an evidence of commercial exchange between two regions.
3. Conclusion
Archaeological evidence reveals a large degree of cultural integration among the Indo-Iranian-Borderlands. In this vast area, not only Shahr-i Sokhta played an important role in the evolution of urbanization patterns and economic complexity but also in spreading these patterns to the adjacent regions including Indus, southern Turkmenia and the northern part of Helmand basin. Shahr-i Sokhta acted as an important provider of raw materials (such as lapis lazuli and turquoise) for Susa and Mesopotamian markets too. Archaeometric studies indicate one of the sources for providing of agate for the Indus markets was the Helmand basin as small pebbles of this stone could be found on the riverbed. As it is indicated by the analysis of the corpus, direct and indirect mechanisms of relationship could be envisaged for exchanging goods and ideas. From one hand, the Harappan pottery is found at Shahr-i Sokhta specifying a direct contact and from another hand, the so-called "Nal pottery" form a meaningful percentage of pottery corpus at Shahr-i Sokhta since the first period of settlement, allowing suggesting also indirect contacts.
Moreover, the existence of stone weights and weighing systems in Sistan and Indus highlights the economic role of Shahr-i Sokhta in interactions with Mesopotamia and Indus. With regard to ancient gaming boards, one can bear in mind that Sistan was a center for invention and distribution of gaming boards in the ancient world judging from the abundance of gaming pieces found in various archaeological contexts at Shahr-i Sokhta. About ancient itineraries between Sistan and Indus, different routes could be identified. At first glance, it seems that connecting routes between Sistan and Indus were passed via Makran. But the passages of Qandahar Plain could be also considered as an ideal substitution. It is noteworthy to emphasize the list of objects confirming cultural interactions between two regions are not limited to the mentioned items and second research could best illustrate these cultural interactions sphere.
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