Maritime Trade across the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf in Ancient Times

Abstract
The Indian Ocean has long been important as a free sea and a commercial highway, and has been the focus of Iranians and other ancient nations. In ancient Iran, this region played a significant role in terms of communication with the Persian Gulf in the field of seafaring and maritime trade. With the rise of the Achaemenid dynasty, the importance of this issue increased and maritime trade flourished with the actions of the kings of this dynasty. After the collapse of the Achaemenid government with the rise of the Seleucids, trade in this region declined due to the conflict for power, but it flourished with the collapse of the Seleucids and the formation of the Parthian government and competition with the Romans. The Sassanians also follow the Parthians method in this regard. In this research, our goal is to identify the extent of the Indus Delta using a descriptive-analytical method and using historical sources to determine how and in what form the maritime trade process in the Indian Ocean, especially the Indus Delta, was in ancient times and when the maritime trade in this region has progressed or declined and what is the reason for this progress or decline.
 

Introduction

Marine archaeology is a branch of archaeology that facilitates the discovery of submerged and buried objects such as structures, sunken ships, anchors, remains of port facilities, and more. It examines human interaction with the sea by studying material remains and cultural landscapes. The Indian coastline, stretching over 7500 kilometers, has been well-known throughout history due to its proximity to maritime ports located at the mouths of rivers. The extensive maritime trade network between the Indian subcontinent, Iran, and Mesopotamia provides evidence of its long history, dating back to the early 3rd millennium BCE. Since the beginning of recorded history, the Indian maritime trade network has experienced significant expansion. Notably, archaeological research in many coastal towns indicates that trade between India and several countries was possible through the Indian Ocean during the early periods, highlighting India's early maritime trade dominance over other nations. Ancient historical records reveal that the delta of the Indus River (Sindhu) was always considered important geopolitically and served as the gateway to the Indian subcontinent. The Indus, due to vibrant ports like Barbarikon (Barbaricum) situated among its seven river mouths, holds special significance in classical texts and ancient documents. Unfortunately, due to changes in the nature of the Indus River delta, the exact location of Barbarikon has not been definitively identified. However, it appears that the closest possible location, from a geographical standpoint, is Banbhore at the mouth of the Indus River and the city of Karachi in southern Pakistan (Khan, 1969: 51). The regions of southeastern Iran have had a longstanding connection with the economic transformations of the Indian Ocean coasts and the lands beyond, and they have always maintained mutual interaction. In this study, firstly, the maritime trade network connection with India throughout different historical periods, particularly the Indus Delta as an economic gateway, is briefly discussed. Then, the imports and exports from the Indus Delta and Barbarikon, as well as the role of inland regions, including some significant historical urban centers of India and Central Asia, in the trade routes, are introduced in detail. Lastly, the role of the Indus Delta in navigation from the Indian Ocean to the renowned ports in the Persian Gulf is addressed, and the reasons for the decline and downfall of this region in maritime trade are examined.  
1.1. Research Methodology
The descriptive-analytical approach is employed, drawn upon theoretical sources such as library studies and documentary sources. Various semi-structured interviews were conducted with some historians specializing in ancient history. While this method may seem straightforward, it requires precise, systematic, and comprehensive scholarly work to examine historical data and observations made by others. Some primary sources on this subject were in Hindi, Urdu, and Arabic, while others were in English and Persian. The aim was to rely on credible translations and selected references that could be directly referenced and documented. In historical research, external and internal criticism is used to verify documents and determine the reliability of the data. In this article, the term "researcher" refers to an archaeologist rather than a historian. This is because the work of a historian involves reporting historical events, while an archaeologist seeks to explore and systematically reconstruct the past through the examination of artifacts, documents, and historical remains.

Discussion

The Indian Ocean has long been considered an important trade route that captured the attention of ancient Iranian and other empires. The region's connection with the Persian Gulf made it prominent in maritime trade and navigation during ancient Iranian rule. Archaeological evidence suggests that trade in this area dates back to the Sumerian and Elamite civilizations. Archaeologists have also discovered remnants of the Sind Delta in other locations. Banbhore, with its impressive architectural structures spanning a 1500-year period, was one such site. With the rise of the Achaemenid Empire, the importance of this region increased, and maritime trade flourished through the actions of the Achaemenid kings (Pierre Briant, 1381:751). After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the emergence of the Seleucids, trade in the region declined due to struggles. However, with the fall of the Seleucids and the establishment of the Parthian Empire followed by a resurgence experienced by the region. During the early centuries AD, the Indo-Parthians, who remained loyal to the Kushan dynasty, controlled Barbarikon. The Sassanians also followed the Parthian approach in this regard. In this research, the subject of maritime trade in the Indian Ocean, especially the Indus Delta in ancient times, has been discussed and investigated, and in what period maritime trade was developed in this region and what was the cause of its prosperity and stagnation.

Conclusion

In ancient times, trade and commerce played a vital role in the exchange of culture and civilization. The Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean had significant importance in this regard. During the Parthian era, the inhabitants of the cities between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates and the southern coasts of Iran had close connections with the Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley. Barbarikon, as an important commercial and economic network, showcased the unity of maritime, riverine, and overland routes. In ancient times, this city was known as the "Gateway City" and had strong commercial and economic ties with the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Roman Empire. From this port, goods produced in China, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent were exported to the ports of the Persian Gulf and other regions. In addition to the trade of goods, exchanges in religion, culture, language, and traditions also took place. Barbarikon's political significance was also very high due to its proximity to the Hindu Kushan kings and dominance in trade. However, political instability and conflicts between the Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans were the main factors leading to a decline in the importance of this port over time. Additionally, the significant Roman discovery of sea routes from the Indian Ocean led to an increased importance of Barygaza port. Nevertheless, Barbarikon continued its existence and operated during the Islamic period under the name "Bandar Daybul". However, due to the changing course of the Sind River, the exact location of Barbarikon is still uncertain, and our knowledge in this regard is limited.

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