The trade of precious and semi-precious stones between Iran and India (with a focus on Khorasan agate)

The trade relations between Iran and India have always been strong, both by sea and land. Historically, monarchs undertook significant actions to beautify their capitals, such as the exploration and extraction of precious and semi-precious stones in their territories. Indeed, the trade of precious and semi-precious stones has been one of the most important commercial ties between Iran and India from the past to the present. The aim of the present research is to explore the relationship between Iran and India regarding the movement of precious and semi-precious stones, particularly the agate from Khorasan. The main question of this study is: How are the trade relations between Iran and India concerning the movement of precious stones, especially the agate from Khorasan? The findings indicate that maritime routes have historically connected the Indian Ocean, the Sea of Oman, and the Persian Gulf through the ports owith Chabahar port currently being significant. The land route has extended from Merv (Khorasan) to Kandahar and then to India. In the past, the trade of precious and semi-precious stones, particularly agate, was transferred from India to Iran; this trade was undoubtedly reciprocal, as at one point in time, turquoise was exported from Khorasan to India.

Introduction

Since the beginning of the Achaemenid rule in Iran, commercial, political, social, cultural and religious relations between Iran and India have been very close, and as a result, both sides have influenced each other through the exchange of ideas in science, philosophy and art (Mawasat and Masoudi. 2010: 53). In addition, trade in precious and semi-precious stones has been established between Iran and India, so that the study of existing sources helps to understand that the two civilizations of Iran and India have been connected to each other through land and sea trade. During the Sasanian period in the sixth century AD, trade between Iran and India, including Ceylon, was by sea, and their ships were constantly traveling on the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean to exchange their goods. So much so that researchers call this exchange a "back-to-back" exchange, known as barter, which existed between Iran and India and its history dates back to the third to the first millennium BC. Precious and semi-precious stones were exported through trade routes from the Indus River Valley to the Iranian plateau, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Egypt (Badagh Abadi, 1400: 119). The aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between Iran and India in the field of movement and trade of precious and semi-precious stones, especially Khorasan agate. The research questions are explained as follows. What are the trade relations between Iran and India in the field of movement of precious stones, especially Khorasan agate? From which ports was the trade of precious and semi-precious stones, especially agate, carried out? What is the form of this trade now? Considering that the trade of precious and semi-precious stones is one of the most profitable trades in the world and that Khorasan province is rich in mines rich in precious and semi-precious stones, especially agate mines; Despite the historical background and natural potential, as well as the existence of human resources, and considering the abundant employment generation of this trade, the importance and necessity of this research is evident. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a more comprehensive research in the field of Khorasan agate mining, processing, and trade to identify existing challenges.
 
2- Research Methodology
The present study is considered a basic research in terms of its qualitative approach and descriptive-analytical method, and in terms of its nature. The data were collected based on library resources and field research (interviews and observations). In documentary studies, an attempt was made to identify all written documents and documents that are somehow related to the research topic and to carefully study and reflect on them. In the field studies section, interviews were conducted with people interested in the topic under study, and thoughtful results were obtained.
 

Discussion

Currently, the most important center for cutting precious and semi-precious stones is in Khorasan province and in the city of Mashhad. There are many workshops and industrial units active in this field. On the one hand, Mashhad is the most important city close to the Nishapur turquoise and Quchan turquoise mines, as well as the agates of Torud, Ferdows and Qaenat, and on the other hand, it is the most important pilgrimage city for Shiites in Iran. Since most lovers of turquoise and agate stones in Iran buy and use these stones mostly for religious reasons, Mashhad has been a suitable place for the development of this industry and the trade of its products for many years. In Tehran, a limited number (less than ten people) are engaged in the profession of stone carving and cutting multi-faceted gems. In addition to Tehran, convex gems are also cut to a limited extent in the city of Qom (Makaber and Afzal, 2013: 158). As Sadra Yadegari, a jewelry seller in the Kausar Complex in Isfahan, said in an interview: Just as in Mashhad, there is a market named after Imam Reza (AS) where stones are sold and cut, in India, there is a street in Jaipur where precious and semi-precious stones are cut. This street is full of shops and stores that cut and sell stones, and most Indian stone cutters work on this street. In addition, all merchants and traders visit this place to buy and sell stones (Yadegari, 1402). Ata'i, an expert and teacher of stone cutting at a school in Mashhad, says: "The raw agate stone of Khorasan goes to India and is cut there" (Ata'i, 1401). This is while there are skilled agate cutters in Mashhad, as one of the agate cutters says: "I have been working in the profession of agate cutting and teaching this profession for about 53 years" (Gholamian, 1401). Amir Yahi, a professor at Payam Noor University and a seller of precious and semi-precious stones in Isfahan, believes that agate is no longer imported from India to Iran as it was in the past. He says, "In the past, Indian students who came to Qom to study would bring various precious and semi-precious stones to Qom, but since Khorasan agate (Baig agate and South Khorasan agate) has become abundant, Indian agate is not popular in Iran. Even agate is taken from Iran to India (Yahi, 1402). The identification of agate is completely empirical. In the past, Yemeni agate was the most popular and ranked first, and Indian agate was ranked second, but today, the design and color of Khorasan agate is very excellent; of course, it has replaced Yemeni agate in terms of color and design. However, in terms of name and reputation among the common people, Yemeni agate has still maintained its position. Indian students studying in the city of Qom bring precious and semi-precious stones from India on their travels. Often, the pulse of the stone market is in the hands of these people (Yadgari, 1402).

Conclusion

Because of its geographical location, Iran has been a bridge between the East and the West. Iran's trade routes have included land routes such as the Silk Road and sea routes from the Persian Gulf to India and other regions. Iranian ports such as Siraf, Hormuz, and Chabahar have long played a key role in transporting precious stones from India to Iran and vice versa.
Khorasan province, especially areas such as Baig and Qaenat, are known as the main centers of agate mining. These mines are of interest to domestic and international markets due to their high quality and variety of colors. In contrast, India, despite having limited agate reserves, has been a leader in the gem cutting and processing industry and has influenced global markets with its processed products.
Today, Iran faces challenges in the field of gemstone processing, including a lack of modern technology, skilled labor, and appropriate trade laws. This is while India has been able to capture a significant share of the global market by using cheap labor and advanced gem cutting techniques. A significant portion of Iranian agate is exported to India in raw form and then processed and supplied to global markets, which results in a loss of added value for Iran.
 

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